According to Wikipedia[1], the term “artificial intelligence” (AI) was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy, a renowned computer scientist, and defined as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines.” AI software and programs enable machines to mimic human behavior and thinking, thereby allowing people to use the information they provide to make better decisions – though the machines can be programmed to make the decisions themselves. McCarthy[2], now a professor of Computer Science at Stanford University, explains that, with respect to AI, “intelligence” refers to “the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.” While it typically refers to imitating human intelligence, AI is not limited to methods that are observable in nature. The ultimate goal of the technological advances made in AI is to achieve – or even surpass – human intelligence in machines, thus endowing them with the same (or more efficient) problem-solving capabilities as their creators.
Artificial intelligence has several important applications in today’s world of business, and many more are on the way. Expert systems, according to McCarthy, are ground-breaking in the sense that they enable computers to reason through a problem in order to reach a suggested decision. To do this, engineers interview experts in various fields and attempt to embody their expertise in the form of an “intelligent” computer program. According to Haag, Cummings, McCubbrey, Pinsonneault, and Donovan[3], expert systems are used in accounting (for auditing and tax planning), human resources management (to handle compliance with federal employment laws), financial management, production (to direct the manufacture or certain products), and in various other fields. Other types of AI systems are neural networks, which are used for pattern recognition (according to Ian McGugan[4], they’re being used by investment firms to beat the stock market and by creditors to recognize likely credit risks), genetic algorithms, which generate multiple solutions to problems and select the best ones, and intelligent agents, or independent systems that carry out specified, predictable tasks.
The implementation of AI systems has certain inherent advantages. For instance, a business with the necessary technology could dramatically reduce its costs by employing such systems in their decision-making processes because, since the computer is capable of reasoning through complex problems, the majority of workers could function with a less comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand – the software would navigate its subtleties with ease. For the same reason, AI could drastically reduce the costs of human error, as the technology simulates the human thinking process, but does not actually duplicate it (or its faults). Robots that operate using AI could perform the tasks that are dangerous for people, and could even eliminate a company’s need for unskilled labor (thereby reducing these costs, as well). However, this concept implies certain disadvantages. While ultimately efficient and cost-reducing, implementing AI systems can incur large initial expenses for a company in terms of the required management support and software. Also, the near-elimination of the human element in the decision-making process could cause people (both within the company and without) to question the businesses decisions and strategies, since, as the technology is still relatively new, they may find it difficult to completely entrust important decisions to a machine incapable of independent rational thought.
[1] Artificial Intelligence. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence#Business
[2] McCarthy, J. What is artificial intelligence? Retrieved September 21, 2007, from http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/whatisai.html
[3] Haag, S., Cummings, M., McCubbrey, D., Pinsonneault A., & Donovan, R. (2006). Management information systems for the information age (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson
[4] McGugan, I. (1994). The machines from Mensa. Canadian Business, 63(3). Retrieved September 21, 2007, from ProQuest database.
Monday, October 1, 2007
Sunday, September 30, 2007
Haptic Technology
The word “haptics,” according to Dictionary.com[1], is derived from the Greek háp(tein), meaning to grasp, sense, or perceive. It refers to the science of touch, and, as explained by Stephen Brewster[2], haptic technologies, as employed by “force-feedback” devices, allow for the incorporation of the sense of touch in computer-based applications, letting users “physically” interact with virtual objects. According to J. Kenneth Salisbury Jr.[3], professor of computer science at Stanford University, if the forces that are exerted on a device used to interact with virtual objects can be coordinated to recreate the characteristics of a real object, a user can be made to feel as if s/he is touching it. The user would be able to hold and move a three-dimensional virtual object. The technology can virtually imitate the texture, size, and weight of an object by applying certain pressures to, for instance, a user’s hand.
Haptic technology could add – and is adding – a whole new element to virtual reality. What was once possible in the realms of sight and sound alone can now be enhanced by touch, and the possibilities in the world of entertainment are endless. In fact, Nintendo, for example, has already begun to explore virtual movement with the Wii, but the use of haptic technology would add to the experience for users by allowing them to actually feel the game. Haptics also has important applications in medicine; surgeons could perform their first procedures in a virtual environment without having to practice on a cadaver – or on a living person.
Certain applications of haptic technology could alter the ways in which businesses function. In recent years, long-distance communications within companies and between companies have been greatly facilitated by improvements made to videoconferencing technologies. People all over the world can now “meet” online, eliminating the need for much of the costly travelling that was once necessary in order to maintain business relationships overseas. Haptic technology could allow business executives to shake hands with their partners in other countries, and, though seemingly inconsequential, this represents progress in communication technology as monumental as the webcam itself.
Emerging haptic technologies are presenting various marketing opportunities for companies. As Richard Gray[4] notes, the technology would allow an online shopper to handle a product before purchasing it, making the e-shopping experience generally more attractive. For this reason, implementing haptic technology on a company website could prove beneficial. In this case, the immediate advantage is the consumer’s, but the company would experience an increase in sales, and therefore in profits. Haptic technology used with virtual environments could also be used to train workers, thereby cutting costs and increasing employee efficiency. However, as advantageous as it may seem, as with any technology, haptics has its drawbacks. For instance, with respect to the online shopping example, all shoppers would have to have access to the force-feedback devices required to enjoy the technology. These devices and equipment would be expensive, at least initially, for both the consumer and the company. Employees and consumers would then have to learn how to use it – and even then, the technology could not yet be expected to perform as it should. Though the objective of the technology would be to replicate real life (that is, real objects), it seems unlikely that a virtual imitation could ever perfectly duplicate a real-life touch.
[1] Haptics. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/haptics
[2] Brewster, S. (2001). The Impact of Haptic 'Touching' Technology on Cultural Applications. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~stephen/papers/EVA2001.pdf
[3] Ruvinsky, J. (2003, April 2). Haptic technology simulates the sense of touch – via computer. Stanford Report [online]. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2003/april2/haptics-42.html
[4] Gray, R. (2007, September 18). Getting in touch online: Hand is just a shake away. The Gazette [online], p. A20. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from ProQuest database.
Haptic technology could add – and is adding – a whole new element to virtual reality. What was once possible in the realms of sight and sound alone can now be enhanced by touch, and the possibilities in the world of entertainment are endless. In fact, Nintendo, for example, has already begun to explore virtual movement with the Wii, but the use of haptic technology would add to the experience for users by allowing them to actually feel the game. Haptics also has important applications in medicine; surgeons could perform their first procedures in a virtual environment without having to practice on a cadaver – or on a living person.
Certain applications of haptic technology could alter the ways in which businesses function. In recent years, long-distance communications within companies and between companies have been greatly facilitated by improvements made to videoconferencing technologies. People all over the world can now “meet” online, eliminating the need for much of the costly travelling that was once necessary in order to maintain business relationships overseas. Haptic technology could allow business executives to shake hands with their partners in other countries, and, though seemingly inconsequential, this represents progress in communication technology as monumental as the webcam itself.
Emerging haptic technologies are presenting various marketing opportunities for companies. As Richard Gray[4] notes, the technology would allow an online shopper to handle a product before purchasing it, making the e-shopping experience generally more attractive. For this reason, implementing haptic technology on a company website could prove beneficial. In this case, the immediate advantage is the consumer’s, but the company would experience an increase in sales, and therefore in profits. Haptic technology used with virtual environments could also be used to train workers, thereby cutting costs and increasing employee efficiency. However, as advantageous as it may seem, as with any technology, haptics has its drawbacks. For instance, with respect to the online shopping example, all shoppers would have to have access to the force-feedback devices required to enjoy the technology. These devices and equipment would be expensive, at least initially, for both the consumer and the company. Employees and consumers would then have to learn how to use it – and even then, the technology could not yet be expected to perform as it should. Though the objective of the technology would be to replicate real life (that is, real objects), it seems unlikely that a virtual imitation could ever perfectly duplicate a real-life touch.
[1] Haptics. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/haptics
[2] Brewster, S. (2001). The Impact of Haptic 'Touching' Technology on Cultural Applications. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~stephen/papers/EVA2001.pdf
[3] Ruvinsky, J. (2003, April 2). Haptic technology simulates the sense of touch – via computer. Stanford Report [online]. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2003/april2/haptics-42.html
[4] Gray, R. (2007, September 18). Getting in touch online: Hand is just a shake away. The Gazette [online], p. A20. Retrieved September 20, 2007, from ProQuest database.
Friday, September 28, 2007
The Future of Wireless Machine-to-Machine Interfaces
A hot topic in the computing world today, wireless machine-to-machine (or M2M) interfaces represent an increasingly prevalent technology that is coming to dominate the new generation of computers that, thanks to lower production costs and technological developments, can be found in devices as commonplace as a mattress.
Although wireless M2M technology is currently cutting-edge, its precedents have been implemented for several decades. According to Paul Rako[1], the early space program used radio telemetry – a technology that allows the remote measurement and reporting of information to the system operator (Wikipedia[2]) – in order to send data from space back to NASA and control the signals to the spacecraft without human intervention. More recently, the term “telemetry” has been replaced by “telematics,” which, according to Rako, covers the technology’s applications in entertainment and navigation, as well as its emergency uses. General Motors, for example, has broken ground on this concept with its OnStar service.
Wireless M2M networks represent a convergence among several other emerging technology, such as spread-spectrum wireless, embedded processors, and network-routing protocols, for this reason, the market for M2M technology is the subject of much publicity and excitement. The prediction, as Rako explains, is that a wireless M2M network “will allow communication between a light switch and a refrigerator,” presumably amongst other things. In short, as Alex Brisbourne[3] states, M2M technology essentially consists of machines “talking” to other machines.
The implications for businesses (and society as a whole) are much more significant. Wireless M2M interfaces effectively allow for the elimination of the human element in data communication, as machines will become capable of analyzing the data on the Web, and when this is made possible, as stated by Tim Berners-Lee, “the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy, and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines, leaving humans to provide the inspiration and intuition.”
The implementation of M2M technology has distinct advantages and disadvantages for business organization. It could have, for example, tremendous potential when used in conjunction with supply chain management (SCM) systems or enterprise resource planning (ERP) software in order to fully and remotely automate communications between the business and its suppliers or distributors, for instance, by “sensing” what data should be communicated, and when. Should this process become automated, the business would see a reduction in operating costs as the human component of SCM (i.e. recording and transmitting data through the system) is virtually eliminated, and a higher degree of efficiency as machine replaced man. However, on that note, the business would effectively be entrusting its daily operations to a machine incapable of understanding the subtleties of the organizations objectives, and would therefore be exposing itself to “miscalculations” on the part of the computer. There is also a certain degree of risk associated with any wireless technology since the network (M2M, in this case) can be hacked. The business must be prepared to address these security issues before it commits to the use of such technology.
According to Wikipedia[4], the market for M2M technology is expected to rapidly expand between now and 2010, the 2010 world market potentially exceeding $300 billion in annual revenue. Should the market reach its expected size, society will have to consider the impact of this technology on the workforce, the workplace, and the role of government in our daily lives.
[1] Rako, P. (2007). “Hop, jump, and spread: wireless machine-to-machine interfaces.” EDN, 52(12). Retrieved September 19, 2007, from ProQuest database.
[2] Telemetry. Retrieved September 19, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry
[3] Brisbourne, A. (2007). Rise of the machines. The American City & County, 122(9). Retrieved September 19, 2007, from ProQuest database.
[4] Machine to Machine. Retrieved September 19, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_to_Machine
Although wireless M2M technology is currently cutting-edge, its precedents have been implemented for several decades. According to Paul Rako[1], the early space program used radio telemetry – a technology that allows the remote measurement and reporting of information to the system operator (Wikipedia[2]) – in order to send data from space back to NASA and control the signals to the spacecraft without human intervention. More recently, the term “telemetry” has been replaced by “telematics,” which, according to Rako, covers the technology’s applications in entertainment and navigation, as well as its emergency uses. General Motors, for example, has broken ground on this concept with its OnStar service.
Wireless M2M networks represent a convergence among several other emerging technology, such as spread-spectrum wireless, embedded processors, and network-routing protocols, for this reason, the market for M2M technology is the subject of much publicity and excitement. The prediction, as Rako explains, is that a wireless M2M network “will allow communication between a light switch and a refrigerator,” presumably amongst other things. In short, as Alex Brisbourne[3] states, M2M technology essentially consists of machines “talking” to other machines.
The implications for businesses (and society as a whole) are much more significant. Wireless M2M interfaces effectively allow for the elimination of the human element in data communication, as machines will become capable of analyzing the data on the Web, and when this is made possible, as stated by Tim Berners-Lee, “the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy, and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines, leaving humans to provide the inspiration and intuition.”
The implementation of M2M technology has distinct advantages and disadvantages for business organization. It could have, for example, tremendous potential when used in conjunction with supply chain management (SCM) systems or enterprise resource planning (ERP) software in order to fully and remotely automate communications between the business and its suppliers or distributors, for instance, by “sensing” what data should be communicated, and when. Should this process become automated, the business would see a reduction in operating costs as the human component of SCM (i.e. recording and transmitting data through the system) is virtually eliminated, and a higher degree of efficiency as machine replaced man. However, on that note, the business would effectively be entrusting its daily operations to a machine incapable of understanding the subtleties of the organizations objectives, and would therefore be exposing itself to “miscalculations” on the part of the computer. There is also a certain degree of risk associated with any wireless technology since the network (M2M, in this case) can be hacked. The business must be prepared to address these security issues before it commits to the use of such technology.
According to Wikipedia[4], the market for M2M technology is expected to rapidly expand between now and 2010, the 2010 world market potentially exceeding $300 billion in annual revenue. Should the market reach its expected size, society will have to consider the impact of this technology on the workforce, the workplace, and the role of government in our daily lives.
[1] Rako, P. (2007). “Hop, jump, and spread: wireless machine-to-machine interfaces.” EDN, 52(12). Retrieved September 19, 2007, from ProQuest database.
[2] Telemetry. Retrieved September 19, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry
[3] Brisbourne, A. (2007). Rise of the machines. The American City & County, 122(9). Retrieved September 19, 2007, from ProQuest database.
[4] Machine to Machine. Retrieved September 19, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_to_Machine
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)